The dedicated individual risers are primarily used for the hoods that exhaust special chemicals such as radioactive and perchloric fumes that cannot be mixed into the main laboratory exhaust system. Courtesy Fisher Hamilton. Space should be allowed in utility corridors, ceilings, and vertical chases for future heating, ventilation, and air conditioning HVAC , plumbing, and electrical needs.
Service shutoff valves should be easily accessible, located in a box in the wall at the entry to the lab or in the ceiling at the entry. All pipes, valves, and clean-outs should be clearly labeled to identify the contents, pressure, and temperature. Engineering systems are discussed in much greater detail in chapter 4. Today, 14 It typically takes about three years for a lab to be designed and built. During this time, an organization's research needs may change or the people doing the research may leave and be replaced by others.
In either case, there is a good chance that the purpose of the lab will change. To minimize this problem, equipment zones should be created in the initial design. The creation of equipment zones that accommodate change easily is a costeffective design opportunity. It may also be helpful to locate 3 ft to 6 ft equipment zones on the outside walls to accommodate cylinders near fume hoods and refrigerators at the perimeter. Generic lab design may also make sense from an administrative standpoint, since each team or researcher is given the same basic amenities.
The sit-down casework is for work areas, computer imaging, and other types of research that require the researcher to be sitting down for long periods of time. Casework can account for 10 percent or more of a construction budget. But, by purchasing only what is initially needed, a facility can reduce casework costs to as little as 6 to 8 percent of the overall budget.
Of course, the money saved will have to be spent later, when mobile casework is purchased. But it should be remembered that mobile casework and equipment may be funded through other budgets or grants. Purchasing mobile casework will create an inventory of pieces that can be moved from one lab to another. Technological advances allow for more research procedures to be automated. There are several types of movable casework to consider.
Storage cabinets that are 7 ft tall allow a large volume of space for storage and can be very affordable, compared to the cost of multiple base cabinets. Mobile write-up stations can be moved into the lab whenever sit-down space is required for data collection.
Mobile carts make excellent equipment storage units. Often used in research labs as computer workstations, mobile carts allow computer hardware to be stacked and then moved to equipment stations as needed. Data ports are also located adjacent to electrical outlets along the casework. Instrument cart assemblies are designed to allow for the sharing of instruments between labs. Many mobile carts are load tested to support 2, lb. Mobile carts can be designed with 1 in.
The drawer units can be equipped with locks. The typical height of mobile cabinets is 29 in. Also, mobile tables are now available for robotic analyzers. The tables are designed to support lb. A mobile cabinet can also be designed to incorporate a computer cabinet, which can be hooked up to the robotic analyzers.
Mobile computer carts incorporate a pullout shelf for the server and a pullout tray for the keyboard in front of the monitor. Wire management is designed as a part of the cart. Using the full volume of the lab space Flexible partitions Many labs today are equipment intensive and require as much bench space as possible.
Using the full volume of the lab space to stack equipment and supplies can be very helpful and costeffective. Mobile carts, as mentioned earlier, can be used to stack computer hardware as well as other lab equipment. Overhead cabinets allow for storage above the bench, making good use of the volume of a space. Flexibility can also be addressed with adjustable shelving instead of cabinets. Adjustable shelving allows the researcher to use the number of shelves required, at the height and spacing necessary.
If tall equipment is set on the bench, the shelving can be taken down to allow space for the equipment. The bottom shelf should be 19 in.
Today, manufacturers are producing wall systems that are very sturdy and avoid many of the acoustical problems. Movable walls are being developed that can accommodate the engineering services as well as the casework in a modular design. The system can be a solid, full-height wall with open shelving or overhead cabinets above the bench, or a low wall hidden behind the base cabinets.
It can have slotted vertical standards to provide an adjustable system for the casework components. The wall system can support electrical and communications wiring, gas distribution systems, plumbing, and snorkel exhausts. The utility services are run above the ceiling, where they are connected to the overhead service carrier. These services should have quick connect and disconnect features for easy hookups to the overhead service carriers. Docking stations Floor-mounted docking stations can include all utility feeds and a sink.
Ceiling-mounted docking units incorporate all utilities. An overhead service carriage is similar to a docking station, minus the sink.
Wet and dry labs Research facilities typically include both wet and dry labs. Wet labs have sinks, piped gases, and, usually, fume hoods. A key difference is the substantial need for cooling in dry labs because of the heat generated by the equipment. Wet labs cost approximately two times more than dry labs. There is a trade-off, however. One option is to decide with the client how much space initially used for dry functions may eventually have to be converted to wet labs. Presentation and Conferencing Spaces Teleconferencing Teleconferencing allows companies to talk to one another as often as necessary.
Its use is increasingly evident today, and the technology is becoming better. DuPont, Wilmington, Delaware. The Hillier Group, architect. Lecture areas Furniture for lecture areas should accommodate information technology. The furniture should either be pre-wired to allow a laptop to be plugged in or incorporate a raceway to accommodate wiring. Mobile Audiovisual Equipment In some instances, installation of instructional presentation systems in every room may not be affordable.
In these cases, with proper preparation and infrastructure provision, transportable systems can be used. A transportable system should have the audio, video, and control equipment installed in a wheeled equipment rack, with a video projector installed on top of the rack. The total height of the transportable rack, with the projector installed on top, should not exceed 48 in.
Care should be taken to maintain sight lines to the screen for people seated in back of the transportable rack. Because of these developments, communication technologies must be considered early in the design process.
Data, audio, visual, and computational capabilities should be integrated to facilitate new analysis techniques. Designing for Technology Furniture considerations One important change that has occurred in the design of research facilities is that furniture must be designed with computer use in mind. For example, furniture must accommodate the cabling necessary for PCs or laptop computers. Ports and outlets should be located to accommodate multiple furniture layouts.
Write-up stations should be at least 4 ft wide to allow for knee space and hardware under the countertop. Workstations should be 48 in. If a computer will be shared, the workstation should, at a minimum, be 72 in. In wet labs, computer keyboards must be placed away from spill areas, ideally in separate write-up areas.
Laptop computers should be considered for their compact size, mobility, and ease of storage. Electrical outlets must be accessible for plugging in adapters. Designers should consider stacking hardware vertically on mobile carts. Laptops with voice-activated microphones are being developed for use in fume hoods, where use of standard laptops can create safety hazards or where laptops might be damaged by chemical spills.
Following are three options in computer furniture: 1. Specialized equipment enclosures. Computer hardware enclosures. There are hardware enclosures that are fully ventilated and secure. Security for computers in a lab is a management and design issue, and designers should consider mobile cabinets with adjustable shelving that can be locked. Monitor arms, server platforms, and keyboard drawer solutions. Monitor arms are capable of holding up to lb and can support computer monitors of up to 21 in.
Mobile server platforms are designed with adjustable shelving to allow stacking of computer hardware. Keyboard platforms can be adjusted vertically and can be mounted under the work surface.
Networks will take on new meaning when high-speed untethered communication becomes a reality. Today, just as 8Mbps megabits per second wireless networks are beginning to emerge, most hard-wired networks are migrating from 10Mbps to the desktop to Mbps or higher.
Barring a major technological breakthrough, advanced networks will require physical cabling for quite some time to come. Robots are helping industry to address key issues such as competition and quick response time. In there were 80, robots at work in the United States; it was estimated that 10, robots would be added to the workforce each year. As has been documented by the Robotic Industries Association, the typical robot pays for itself in two years.
The reach or radius may be 3—4 ft and as much as 8—12 ft or more, depending on the scope of the activity. The robotic system may also include a mechanical rail or transport system connecting a series of robotic workstations with human workstations. Ellerbe Becket, architect. Courtesy Agilent Technologies. The information avalanche is here and has led to the development of high-throughput automated laboratories.
Today, most laboratory activities are carried out by technicians using various labor-saving devices that are semiautomated. One factor driving the development of automated labs is the triple threat of infectious diseases, foodborne pathogens, and bioterrorism. Second, such facilities demand people to perform highly repetitive tasks, which are prone to human error.
Third, facilities can be overwhelmed by large surges in demand. Such acute surges in demand could occur, for example, during a rapidly spreading epidemic or a bioterrorist attack.
Other key design issues in semiautomated labs involve the handling of samples to be tested and the disposal of wastes.
Sustainable design of lab environments should also improve productivity. Kling Lindquist, architect. Green Building Council and the U. Department of Energy. LEED is based on accepted energy and environmental principles and strikes a balance between known effective practices and emerging concepts. Overhangs Overhangs for shading windows are often designed as part of the wall system. Though many people believe that adding overhangs to shade windows will reduce energy costs enough to justify the additional cost of the overhang, this is not the case.
There is no real energy-savings payback, but overhangs do improve the quality of the natural light entering the interior space. The south elevation should have a horizontal overhang; east and west elevations usually require both horizontal and vertical overhangs. Glazing The glazing material for exterior windows should have a thermal break and an insulating section between the inner and outer sections of the frames. Low-E windows with at least a R-3 insulation value should be used. The problem is that such windows cost up to four times as much as low-E glass.
Operable windows generally will not reduce energy costs; in fact, they may increase energy usage, but they usually enhance the quality of the indoor environment and are therefore preferred by most clients. The amount of wall and roof insulation needed will vary depending on the climate and the type of lab. For example, equipment-intensive labs will generate a lot of heat and in certain parts of the country will not require as much roof insulation as elsewhere. Today, there is quite a bit of discussion about using photovoltaic panels both to enclose a building and to generate electricity.
To be economically feasible, the panels must cover an area large enough to generate enough electricity to make a difference. Engineering Considerations Sustainable engineering addresses civil engineering concerns as well as the design of mechanical, plumbing, and lighting systems. Civil engineering Civil engineering issues to consider 30 include the use of pervious materials wherever possible. In preparing a site for new construction, designers should consider transplanting existing trees instead of removing them.
Mechanical, plumbing, and waterconservation strategies For the HVAC system, it is most important to simulate the operation of the whole system and to analyze assumptions using whole-building systems analysis software such as DOE This raises a design challenge, however, since air supplied to laboratories is exposed to chemical contaminants and therefore cannot be returned to the central air handling system and must be exhausted.
Return air from these areas is reconditioned through the mechanical system and then ducted to the laboratories as supply air. The supply air to the laboratories is exhausted. In this way, the outside air is used twice before being exhausted. Maintenance is also important. Control systems for variable speed drives on pumps, fans, and compressors should be used only if the controls will be regularly maintained and calibrated. The water-side economizer will help with humidity controls.
Consider using local hot water tanks at kitchens, restrooms, and other areas instead of central hot water. Where functional requirements permit, lighting design should combine task and ambient lighting to reduce the high overall light levels.
Good task lighting lessens glare and eyestrain. Daylighting Daylight is an important component of sustainable design. Not only does it reduce energy use, but it increases comfort and enhances productivity. Designers should strive to direct natural light into most laboratory spaces and public areas so that, from almost anywhere in the building, people have the opportunity to look outdoors to see what the weather is like and orient themselves to the time of day.
Sustainable lighting design Sustainable lighting design reduces energy use while enhancing employee comfort and productivity. CFLs should be used instead. The use of light shelves can extend the daylight zone as far as 45 ft into the building. Clerestory windows and skylights can be used to get even more natural daylight into the building. Daylighting control systems determine the amount of light available in a given space and switch off one or more banks of lights whenever there is enough sunlight.
Other photosensing technologies include programmable low-voltage control systems and occupancy sensors. The programmable low-voltage systems can control individual areas of the building or an entire building with one switch. These systems interface with the building automation and dimming systems. Occupancy sensors typically have a one-to-two-year payback. The sensors are designed with adjustable sensitivity levels and timing. There are two technologies: passive infrared and ultrasonic.
Passive infrared sensors detect movement of heat between zones. Ultrasonic occupancy sensors work by broadcasting ultrasonic sound waves, analyzing the returning waves and detecting movement through Doppler shifts.
They are effective for larger rooms and can cover a degree area. One problem is that air turbulence can trigger their operation.
All occupancy sensor systems must be designed correctly to avoid nuisance operation. Sixty percent of the scrap steel comes from old cars and appliances, the other 40 percent from manufacturing fall-off.
Direct digital control energy management systems are seen in many new laboratory facilities. Computers that turn themselves off during nonworking hours reduce energy use and cost by reducing cooling loads and electrical demands. Laptop computers use onetenth the energy of desktop PCs. All the architectural and engineering issues should be studied on a project-byproject basis. The U. Department of Energy DOE have launched a new, voluntary program to improve the environmental performance of U.
For more detailed information on this initiative, see the appendix to this book. The Bay-Dole Act, passed by the U. The number of science parks increased percent worldwide in the s, from parks in to more than in SMBW Architects.
The second is closely related: with economic development comes job creation. A third reason for developing research parks is that they provide the opportunity for technology transfer from the academic environment to the marketplace.
Nevertheless, private industry is becoming a good neighbor to academic institutions across the country. Attracting top employees is likely to continue to be a concern for most companies. By locating laboratories on or next to academic campuses, private-sector industries that may have problems attracting top researchers are more easily able to draw some of the best young talent to their companies. Also, two-year technical colleges are now constructing computer science and general research buildings to provide young employees for the research market.
During initial construction, basic engineering systems are put in place, but little or no casework is installed. When a research team leases space, it upgrades its portion of the building with additional engineering systems, casework, and equipment. Building size typically ranges from 20, to , GSF. The base building allows companies to get started and to add casework and upgrade the engineering systems later, when funding becomes available.
Government laboratories — including those run by federal agencies and those operated by state governments — do research in the public interest.
This chapter focuses on the design issues that differentiate each type of lab. Reduction of cycle time is critical, requiring organizational dynamics and technical solutions. Sharing information, generating knowledge, and team-based research are some of the ways companies are addressing the marketplace. The Competitive Marketplace Because of the current competitive marketplace, many private-sector companies are investing more money in creating high-quality spaces outside the labs.
Companies feel the strong need to attract new employees to their campuses and to keep the employees they have. The competition to keep top researchers and the need to develop more discoveries each year are the main differences between private-sector companies and government and academic facilities. Many private-sector companies are involved in the discovery-to-market phases of research. In the past, teams were almost always organized around a principal investigator and composed of a more or less permanent set of individuals.
Most private corporations tend to implement extensive facility management to address churn and maintain the facilities. Initial cost is always a consideration, but long-term operational costs and return on investments are also key to the design and operation of a laboratory facility. On completion of mergers, companies must address concerns such as evaluating existing buildings for their highest and best use, consolidation of facilities, and leasing or selling of real estate.
HOK, Inc. Other key attributes of private-sector labs include centralization of services such as glassware storage, engineering Startup Companies and Developer-Owned Buildings Among the results of the recent megamergers of pharmaceutical companies has been the emergence of many startup companies.
A startup, regardless of its research mission, has a different outlook on facilities. The way in which a startup company obtains services to design and construct its facilities is in most cases different from the traditional design, bid, and build process.
Private-Sector Labs Generally, startup companies do not want to spend their own money on facilities. The money they do have must be used to fund and obtain their research and business goals, and they are not interested in building corporate headquarters per se. Companies that are in the third round of funding are now creditworthy and have the business and science credibility to attract investors.
Still, in many cases these companies do not want to use their own capital to build facilities but often seek a developer to fund the project with a leaseback option.
Most projects at this level come into being through some form of the designbuild process, bringing together a developer, a designer, and a builder. In a few cases, the facility may be programmed and designed to meet the individual requirements of the user group, but in most cases the laboratories will have to be made as generic as possible in case the initial company is not successful and leaves the space.
Another consideration— a challenge for the designer—is that in the future the building may have to accommodate multiple tenants. The developer wants to have a leasable, functional laboratory building if the original users leave. In general, the concept of developerdriven projects works well in the realm of life sciences and general sciences research.
Dupont, Wilmington, Delaware. Sigma Coating Laboratory, England. Architects and engineers in the United States have had many opportunities to provide design services for research companies overseas. For example, over the past ten years U. A laboratory project in France may require the approval of more than two dozen agencies! In Asia, however, U. Competitions are widely used on most major projects in China today. This approach saves the Chinese government money, lets it employ its own people, and incorporates the U.
A key difference in designing and building outside this country is that all calculations are done in the metric system. The designer must have a clear understanding of the typical room construction methods, materials, and details of the country in which he or she will be working. It is also extremely important to understand the capabilities of the local construction industry.
For example, for a large research project in England, pre-cast concrete panels were fabricated by a company in the United States. No concrete company in all of Europe could produce the concrete panels for less than it cost to make and ship the product from the United States.
At the beginning of the design phase it is important to understand what can be built locally, at what quality, and at what cost. Space Guidelines In most cases, private-sector research labs are slightly more expensive and larger than government or academic labs because competitive markets require more discoveries each year and because privatesector companies must spend more on facilities to retain their employees. Benchmarking is used to estimate the cost of a laboratory or research building as well as the amount of space and casework to be provided to each researcher.
It is sometimes necessary to make broad assumptions of scope and cost well before any predesign investigations begin. The following examples are presented for use in such a situation. It typically includes shell space for new and remodeled construction projects so that it can affordably address growth in the organization. Benchmarking labs can be done by calculating the equivalent linear footage of bench ELF factor. ELF values per person per discipline without animal, greenhouse, and pilot areas : Organic chemistry 24—28 Physical chemistry 24—33 Instrumental analytical chemistry 33—41 Microbiological and immunological 20—31 Net lab square footage per person according to the preceding ELF values based on a 10 ft 6 in.
DuPont Medicinal Chemistry Building. The laboratories are based on the latest ideas and technology developed in the United States: open labs, equipment zones, modular design of architectural and engineering systems, zoning of the building between lab and non-lab spaces, and team-based research and computer applications.
The fume hoods, other key types of lab equipment, and the main mechanical systems serving the building will be built in the United States or Europe, then installed in the facility in China. It is an excellent example of a private-sector laboratory. The participation of a user group throughout the design process was key to the overall success of the design.
DuPont gathered scientists together to develop a wish list, which included three-person labs with three 12 ft hoods. Each scientist received a 12 ft hood. The bench space was increased to 7 linear ft Private Lab Case Studies: DuPont Medicinal Chemistry Building per occupant to take advantage of the latest instrumentation technology. The chemical handling areas are immediately adjacent to the labs and can be accessed from the service corridor, which is separated from public areas of the building.
More ventilated chemical storage space was provided to reduce the risk of personnel exposure, and more ventilated bench space for chemical transfer operations was constructed.
A creative, interactive environment improved the ability to recruit and retain top scientists. The building design is based on a 21 ft x 27 ft module that allows plenty of space for a principal investigator and two scientists. Depending on the work area required, two sashes can be fully raised or all four sashes can be raised to half height, providing a total operating face opening of 50 percent.
Flexibility was created with a service corridor, which has all the engineering systems exposed in an open ceiling. The systems connect to the rear of each lab, allowing maintenance workers to make changes without entering the lab areas. Glassware and chemical storage can also be accessed from the service corridor without lab entry.
The scientists can write up their research while overseeing their lab spaces. The combination of wood and metal casework is visually appealing. Transparent glassware cabinets are accessible from the labs and service corridors.
Marker boards are located throughout the building. The use of different materials and colors ensures that the entire building is detailed at the same level of quality as the atrium. Flad worked with a team of nationally and internationally known consultants, including Mexican architect Ricardo Legorreta, who developed the master plan for the 2. From the beginning, Chiron made it clear that this project was fundamental to meeting its goal of creating a productive and stimulating work environment for science.
Chiron wanted to create a new type of lab building. A series of atriums, patios, plazas, and open spaces are organized around working spaces. The spaces, each unique, interconnect with one another to create a large, multilevel campus of research villages that encourages communication and interaction among employees. The laboratory incorporates a philosophy of business integration that stresses teamwork and the sharing of ideas. Chiron Life Sciences Building 4.
The lab planning goals remained a keen focus throughout project planning and design. Each has three 24 ft long island benches, with 7 ft of bench space per person and a sink at the end of each benchtop. The result is a pleasant and functional lab environment, with natural daylight and views to the surrounding hills of Berkeley. This design gives priority to the human side of science.
Glaxo Group Research, Ltd. The campus houses chemistry, microbiology, pharmacology, and biochemistry research and drug evaluation; pilot plants for chemical and microbiology development; and administrative support.
The campus is organized around a courtyard. Approaching the site, you are stopped at the security gate. After permission to enter is obtained, you drive up to the parking area that is north of a man-made water feature. You proceed by walking over a bridge, then into the administrative building, which is located to the north. Employee parking is to the left and right of the administrative building.
To the east is the chemistry wing and chemistry pilot plant, supporting more than scientists. All photographs, pages 51—53, courtesy Glaxo Wellcome. Glaxo Wellcome Medicines Research Center. The research building connects directly to the pilot plant. It is organized around a dedicated three-corridor system: the central corridor for services to the labs, and two perimeter corridors for personnel circulation outside the labs.
There is plenty of interior glazing to allow people to see one another, the research labs, and the exterior views. The microbiology complex is at the southwest corner of the campus. The vivarium and microbiology buildings are the only two buildings constructed with an interstitial space.
The generic microbiology lab is similar to the chemistry labs, with the write-up stations immediately adjacent to the labs and plenty of interior glass. The corridor system uses only a single-corridor scheme because the services are handled above, in the interstitial space. The biology building is to the west and houses approximately researchers. The building services, including loading docks, are located at the lower level with a common corridor.
There is a central plant that services the entire complex. The National Institutes of Health NIH , for example, has increased grant money for research to several academic research institutions.
In February , the National Science Foundation documented that the differential growth of federal research dollars for various agencies had resulted in increased shares for the life sciences and for mathematical and computer sciences; fairly constant shares for the environmental sciences and psychology; and declining shares for the social sciences and engineering. The life sciences should see continued research growth. Much of the funding for the life sciences involves NIH.
Government labs usually follow the private sector in developing new and innovative facilities. For example, the primary focus of the Food and Drug Bridge links entire complex.
The windows all have light shelves to minimize glare into the labs. The exterior facades of all the buildings are of similar design and detail. Most of the buildings were planned for future expansion, and, in fact, the microbiology building has already been expanded. Image In the past, laboratories and public areas in government research facilities tended to be more conservatively designed than in private-sector facilities. In the past few years, however, the federal government has developed programs for major new laboratories that, like those in the private sector, focus on team-based labs.
Most lobbies have information boards, computer kiosks, and display areas that show examples of the research that has been conducted there in the past some such display areas are aimed at the general public. The lobby is monitored by security personnel, cameras, and, typically, a card access system.
Another key objective for government research campuses is to provide strategic and master planning evaluations before new buildings are constructed. Many government research campuses do not have a resolved strategic plan with clear phasing or smart, cost-effective programmatic uses for renovated facilities.
HLM, architect. Courtesy NIH. When the next funding package for an addition or new building becomes available, the remaining researchers can move into that facility. Scheduling Typically, a publicly funded project can take two to three times longer to construct than a private-sector laboratory facility.
The funding is appropriated each year. Once programming is completed and funding for the project has been made available, the government publicly announces a request for proposal RFP. The interview process can take three to four months to resolve before the architectural and engineering design and documentation can occur.
After the design is started, there can be months of review by various federal agencies after each submittal. And most projects are competitively bid. There has been some progress, however. On some recent projects, the federal government has hired a construction manager to accelerate the construction process. The construction of Building 40 at NIH has been a fast-tracked project.
Army acquisition systems and cost reduction of current systems. The design promotes interaction between scientists and engineers outside the laboratories, while providing a state-of-the-art research environment in separate laboratories. The research laboratory is located on the crest of a hill along a major approach route to Aberdeen Proving Ground. The facility, consisting of more than , sq ft of research laboratories and support spaces, is tucked into an existing tree line, with the utility-intensive laboratories backing up to an existing forest.
The Benham Group, architect. All photographs, pages 57—60, courtesy Alan Karchmer. Rodman Materials Research Laboratory. Bright yellow outside air intakes make a bold statement, signaling that this is a laboratory facility.
Atriums, clerestories, and skylights allow daylight into the interior of the building, Government Lab Case Studies: Rodman Materials Research Laboratory where photo-sensors automatically dim the installed lighting in response to ambient light levels. The exterior of the building is predominantly red brick with precast concrete trim.
One architectural feature is the inclusion of a passive sunscreening system to reduce glare and heat gain through the perimeter windows. The roof penthouse contains much of the mechanical equipment.
The exhaust stacks march along the penthouse, based on the lab module. The mechanical exhaust system is primarily a manifolded system, requiring fewer exhaust stacks at the building exterior. Books Video icon An illustration of two cells of a film strip. Video Audio icon An illustration of an audio speaker.
Audio Software icon An illustration of a 3. Software Images icon An illustration of two photographs. Images Donate icon An illustration of a heart shape Donate Ellipses icon An illustration of text ellipses. Building type basics for research laboratories Item Preview. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in anyform or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning or otherwise,except as permitted under Sections or of the United States Copyright Act, withouteither the prior written permission of the Publisher, or authorization through payment of theappropriate per-copy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center, Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA, , fax This publication is designed to provide accurate and authoritative information in regard to thesubject matter covered.
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For more information about Wiley products, visit our web site at www. Kliment viiPreface ixAcknowledgments xiIntroduction It is not a coffee-table book lavish with color photography but meager in usablecontent. Rather, it contains the kind of essential information to which architects,consultants, and their clients need ready access, especially in the crucial early phasesof a project. As architectural practice becomes more generalized and rms pursuecommissions in an expanding range of building types, the books in the series providea convenient, hands-on source of such basic information.
Like the others in the series, this volume is tightly organized for ease of use. Theheart of the book is a set of twenty questions most frequently asked about a buildingtype in the early stages of its design.
These cover such concerns as programming andpredesign, project process and management, design concerns unique to the type, andsite planning. The nal questions take up international challenges, operation andmaintenance, and cost and feasibility concerns.
To explore any of the twenty questions, start with the listing on the endpapers insidethe front and back covers , locate the category you want, and turn to the pagesreferenced.
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